With over 65% of South Africa’s population now living in cities, this shift has altered the landscape and dynamics of food security
Urbanisation and food security in South Africa
Urbanisation has transformed South Africa over the past few decades. With over 65% of the population now living in cities, this shift has altered not only the landscape but also the dynamics of food security. While urban areas are often associated with economic opportunities and growth, the reality is more complex.
The World Bank’s research reveals a troubling picture of food insecurity amid urbanisation, where approximately 60% of consumers lack access to basic necessities. The consequences are dire, with around 600 000 children and 2.5 million people going hungry every day.
South Africa’s urban food insecurity trend
South Africa’s urban food insecurity is driven by various factors, including economic migration and the search for better living conditions. Cities like Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Durban have seen significant population increases as individuals and families leave rural areas in search of employment and improved services. While urban centres offer access to jobs, education and healthcare, they also present new challenges.
According to Statistics South Africa the main reason for migrating is to look for paid work, with 22.9% of internal migrants flocking to urban areas in search of economic relief.
This has led to increased demand for food in these urban areas. The concentration of people in cities means that food systems must adapt to serve larger populations. However, this adaptation has not occurred uniformly or effectively, particularly for the most vulnerable groups.
Food systems in transition
As urban populations grow, so too does the complexity of food systems. In rural areas, food production is often local and linked to traditional farming practices. In contrast, urban areas rely heavily on formal and informal markets for food supply. This shift presents both opportunities and challenges.
The formal food supply chain involves large retailers, wholesalers and distributors. This system can improve access to a variety of foods but often prioritises profitability over affordability.
In a conversation with the Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, Andrew Bennie, a senior researcher in climate policy and food systems at the Institute for Economic Justice (IEJ) in South Africa, states: “The South African food system produces a very wide diversity of foods, and there are high levels of national self-sufficiency in production — of grains, meat, eggs, dairy, an array of deciduous fruits and vegetables. However, the system is highly commercialised and organised along commodity lines, each with their own well-resourced commodity associations that lobby for their own interests.”
He continues: “The highly commercialised nature of the food system also translates into high levels of private governance in the food system that effectively limit the role for public policy in steering the food system more directly towards the public good.”
For many urban residents, particularly those in low-income areas, the cost of food remains prohibitively high. Informal markets can provide lower prices, but they are often inconsistent in quality and availability.
The impact of economic disparity on food security
Urban migration and continued urbanisation has exacerbated economic disparity in South Africa. As wealth becomes concentrated in certain areas, low-income residents face increased food insecurity. Many individuals working in the informal economy lack stable incomes and benefits, making it difficult to afford sufficient and nutritious food.
Food prices in urban areas are influenced by factors such as transport costs, supply chain inefficiencies and market demand. These economic pressures mean that even those with jobs may struggle to secure adequate nutrition. For households living below the poverty line, the situation is particularly bleak. Many families must make difficult choices between basic needs like food, housing and healthcare.
In his Thought Leader article, Wandile Sihlobo, chief economist at the Agricultural Business Chamber of South Africa and a senior fellow in Stellenbosch University’s Department of Agricultural Economics, illustrated this point: “In 2022, South Africa ranked 59th out of 113 countries and was the most food secure in sub-Saharan Africa … in an environment such as South Africa with higher unemployment, the effects of food inflation shocks tend to be more severely felt by consumers.”
Hunger and child malnutrition
The consequences of urban food insecurity are severe, especially for children. The statistics are alarming: 600 000 children and 2.5 million people face hunger every day across the globe. Even more alarming are recent estimates indicating that 148 million children are stunted, 45 million are wasted, 37 million are overweight, and about 45% of all under-five deaths are caused by undernutrition.
The urban environment poses unique challenges for children. Many live in areas with limited access to healthy food options. Fast food outlets and convenience stores often dominate the landscape, while fresh produce may be scarce or unaffordable. The lack of proper nutrition during crucial developmental years can lead to long-term health issues and educational challenges.
In a research article titled “Exploring childhood malnutrition and household food security in Gauteng and Limpopo: Implications for social development processes”, authors Matshidiso Sello, Sunday Adedini and Clifford Odimegwu state: “In South Africa, childhood malnutrition is a complex issue deeply intertwined with the country’s food security status and social context.”
The article explains the impact of hunger and malnutrition on urban and rural children: “The detrimental effects of malnutrition extend beyond a child’s health. It can hinder brain development, physical growth, academic performance and future earning potential. This creates a vicious cycle where poverty and malnutrition reinforce each other.”
Community initiatives and responses
A South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES) conducted in 2011-2012 found national prevalence of households at risk of hunger to be 28% and those experiencing hunger at 26%. The equivalent figures in urban informal areas were 32% and 36% respectively. The South African Cities Network affirmed this by stating that the figures are reinforced by case studies, which consistently show high levels of food insecurity.
In response to this growing food security crisis, various community initiatives have emerged across South Africa. Urban farming projects, food banks and community kitchens aim to address immediate needs while promoting sustainable practices. These grassroots efforts often rely on local volunteers and partnerships to provide support to those most in need.
Urban agriculture has gained traction as a viable solution. By transforming vacant lots and underutilised spaces into community gardens, residents can grow their own food and promote food sovereignty. These initiatives not only improve access to fresh produce but also foster community engagement and education about nutrition.
In a case study covered in a paper entitled “Rising to the challenges of food insecurity: Initiatives by local and regional governments”, Durban’s situation was described as critical. “Food insecurity appears to be a direct consequence of inequalities in access to food (lack of affordability of basic food items, let alone quality food). Although 55% of the eThekwini municipality territory is rural, most of the population is concentrated in urban areas where food with low nutrient density is prominent, easily accessible, affordable and socially and culturally-promoted (supermarkets, street food),” states the report.
Two initiatives were devised by the municipality to respond to this crisis. Firstly seven municipal agri-hubs, a platform to support small-scale farmers, were developed which, in 2020, helped support 426 newly-created local small-scale farms.
Secondly, a public/private partnership between the Agroecology and Agri-Food Business services of the eThekwini municipality was formed to facilitate cooperation with small-scale companies and producers from the private sector to accelerate the transition towards a sustainable local food system, and counter the influence of large corporations at the local scale.
Organisations such as the South African Food Bank Foundation work to collect surplus food from retailers and distribute it to those in need. While these initiatives provide critical support, they also highlight the systemic issues that contribute to food insecurity.
Policy and structural changes
Addressing food security in urban areas requires comprehensive policy changes. The South African government has acknowledged the need for a coordinated approach to food systems, aiming to improve access to nutritious food for all citizens. This includes investments in infrastructure, transportation and market access for smallholder farmers.
This is illustrated by Jane Battersby’s comments in an article in the Mail & Guardian: “Supporting the informal sector is essential because it is a major source of food for urban residents,” she said, adding that infrastructure issues such as transport, energy costs and access to clean water and sanitation also shape food security outcomes.
Policies must also focus on economic inclusion and social safety nets. By providing support for low-income households, the government can help alleviate the financial pressures that contribute to food insecurity. Social protection programmes, such as cash transfers and food vouchers, can also provide immediate relief to families struggling to afford food.
The perils of unsustainable agriculture and its impact on food insecurity
Experts warn that continuing with practices like monocropping will likely have catastrophic consequences for future food security
Unsustainable agriculture can include the over-extraction of water resources, poor land management, and the failure to regenerate ecosystems. (Photo by Nardus Engelbrecht/Gallo Images via Getty Images)
Food security is a complex global issue and is intricately linked to agricultural practices. In South Africa and across the world, unsustainable agriculture has long been identified as a major contributor to the degradation of natural resources, loss of biodiversity and soil infertility. Over time, these effects erode the capacity to produce food, exacerbating global food insecurity.
Experts and researchers warn that continuing with unsustainable agricultural practices will likely have catastrophic consequences for future food security. In South Africa, these concerns are particularly pressing due to the country’s dependence on commercial agriculture.
According to Andrew Bennie, senior researcher in climate policy and food systems at the Institute for Economic Justice (IEJ) in South Africa, there are about 41 000 officially recorded commercial farm units in the country, but most food is produced by only about 15 000 of them.
In a conversation with the Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, Bennie laments the fact that “South Africa’s private and profit-driven food system, characterised by high productivity and market concentration, paradoxically coexists alongside high levels of food insecurity and malnutrition.”
Bennie represents a cohort of experts who point to the interconnectedness of soil health, water management and ecosystem services, all of which are at risk under current agricultural, political and economic models.
He continues: “There is a significant amount of varied work happening around food systems, ecology and land, and so I think there is much scope for creating stronger alliances between various actors in various parts of the food system and different organisations.”
Unsustainable agricultural practices defined
Unsustainable agriculture refers to farming systems that undermine their own ability to sustain productivity in the long term. These systems often rely on intensive inputs, such as chemical fertilisers, pesticides and monoculture crops that degrade soil health and biodiversity. Other practices include the over-extraction of water resources, poor land management, and the failure to regenerate ecosystems.
While these methods may yield high outputs in the short term, they typically exhaust the resources needed to sustain production. The use of synthetic inputs has been proven to accelerate soil degradation and disrupt natural ecosystems, further compromising the future of food production.
In South Africa, a history of unsustainable practices — such as monocropping and overgrazing — has contributed to soil erosion, declining water resources, and loss of arable land. According to a report from the University of Cape Town’s African Climate and Development Initiative, unsustainable land use, exacerbated by climate change, has led to increased desertification and soil degradation across vast areas of South Africa.
Agroecology integrates ecological principles into farming systems, promoting biodiversity. (Photo by Kristin Palitza/picture alliance via Getty Images)
Soil degradation and food security
Soil is the foundation of agriculture, but poor soil health remains a significant concern. One of the main drivers of soil degradation in South Africa is monocropping — the practice of growing the same crop year after year on the same land. This reduces soil fertility, leads to a decline in soil structure, and increases susceptibility to pests and diseases. Without healthy soil, plants cannot grow effectively, reducing yields and making crops more vulnerable to external stresses like droughts.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that 33% of the world’s soils are already degraded, and this number is increasing. In South Africa, soil erosion is a significant threat to agricultural productivity. A 2019 study by the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) highlighted that approximately 20% of the country’s soil is severely degraded due to poor farming practices.
The long-term implications of soil degradation on food security are clear. Depleted soils result in lower yields and increased reliance on chemical fertilisers, which are both costly and damaging to the environment. The Department of Agriculture, Land Reform, and Rural Development consistently flags that South Africa is seeing a steady decline in agricultural productivity in regions where soils are heavily degraded, such as the Eastern Cape and parts of KwaZulu-Natal. As soil fertility declines, so does the ability to produce food, directly threatening both rural livelihoods and national food security.
Water scarcity and irrigation
Water management is a critical component of sustainable agriculture, especially in water-scarce countries like South Africa. Agriculture is the largest consumer of water, accounting for roughly 60% of the country’s total water use. Unsustainable water use, through inefficient irrigation systems and over-extraction from rivers and aquifers reduces the availability of water for other sectors, including drinking water supplies and industrial uses.
Water scarcity is exacerbated by climate change, leading to more frequent and severe droughts. In South Africa, the water crisis has become a major limiting factor for food production. The 2015-2016 drought, one of the worst in decades, caused severe losses in agricultural output, particularly in staple crops like maize. The drought reduced maize production by nearly 30%, leading to increased food prices and food insecurity, especially for low-income households.
South Africa’s water resources are under increasing pressure due to inefficient water use in agriculture, according to the Water Research Commission. The failure to adopt more sustainable irrigation practices, such as drip irrigation or rainwater harvesting, will only compound these challenges.
Experts argue that without reforming water management practices, future agricultural productivity will be compromised. The widespread use of unsustainable irrigation practices not only depletes water resources but also leads to soil salinisation, further degrading the land’s ability to produce crops.
Loss of biodiversity
Biodiversity is essential for healthy ecosystems and sustainable agriculture. It provides a range of ecosystem services, including pollination, pest control and nutrient cycling. However, modern agricultural practices — particularly the heavy reliance on monocultures and chemical pesticides — have significantly reduced biodiversity.
In South Africa, the loss of biodiversity is particularly concerning in the context of the country’s unique ecosystems. The Cape Floristic Region, one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, is under threat from agricultural expansion.
The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) argues that agricultural activities are a major driver of biodiversity loss, with many species facing extinction due to habitat destruction.
The loss of biodiversity has direct implications for food security. Reduced biodiversity means fewer pollinators such as bees, which are critical for the production of many crops. In addition, the loss of natural predators allows pest populations to flourish, leading to increased crop damage and higher reliance on chemical pesticides.
A 2020 report by the Centre for Environmental Rights notes that South Africa’s agricultural sector is highly vulnerable to biodiversity loss, which undermines the resilience of farming systems. Without diverse ecosystems to support agricultural production, the long-term sustainability of food systems is at risk.
Climate change and agricultural vulnerability
Climate change poses a significant threat to agriculture globally, and South Africa is particularly vulnerable due to its variable climate and reliance on rain-fed agriculture. The combination of rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events such as floods and droughts will make food production increasingly unpredictable.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warns that Southern Africa is one of the regions most at risk of climate change impacts. In South Africa, the agricultural sector is already experiencing the effects of climate variability, with more frequent droughts, floods and shifts in growing seasons. These changes are expected to reduce crop yields, particularly for staple crops like maize and wheat.
Many experts argue that unsustainable agricultural practices exacerbate the vulnerability of farming systems to climate change. By depleting soil health, over-extracting water, and reducing biodiversity, these practices leave farmers with fewer tools to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The adoption of more sustainable farming practices, such as conservation agriculture and agroecology, is critical to building resilience against climate change.
The economic cost of unsustainable agriculture
In addition to the environmental impacts, unsustainable agriculture has significant economic costs. Soil degradation, water scarcity, and biodiversity loss all contribute to declining agricultural productivity, leading to higher food prices and increased dependence on food imports. This has serious implications for food security, particularly in developing countries where a large proportion of the population relies on agriculture for their livelihoods.
In South Africa, agriculture contributes about 2.5% to the national GDP, but its importance extends beyond this figure. The sector provides employment to millions, particularly in rural areas. However, as land and water resources become increasingly degraded, the agricultural sector’s ability to provide jobs and support livelihoods diminishes.
A 2021 report by the National Planning Commission shows that South Africa is facing a growing food security challenge, with approximately 20% of households considered food insecure. The report highlights the need for urgent reform in agricultural practices to ensure the sustainability of food systems and protect vulnerable populations.
Pathways to sustainable agriculture
To address the challenges posed by unsustainable agriculture, experts recommend a transition to more sustainable farming practices. These include:
Conservation Agriculture: A farming approach that minimises soil disturbance, maintains soil cover, and promotes crop diversity. This method improves soil health, reduces erosion and increases resilience to climate change.
Agroecology: This approach integrates ecological principles into farming systems, promoting biodiversity, natural pest control, and sustainable water use. It reduces reliance on chemical inputs and enhances the resilience of agricultural systems.
Sustainable Water Management: Efficient irrigation systems, such as drip irrigation, and the use of rainwater harvesting can help reduce water use in agriculture. Improved water management practices are essential for maintaining agricultural productivity in water-scarce regions.
Agroforestry: Integrating trees into farming systems can improve soil health, increase biodiversity and enhance water retention. Agroforestry practices have been shown to increase crop yields while reducing environmental degradation.